requires a grammatical form from the caller что это
Requires a grammatical form from the caller диабло 3 что это
И что же оказалось?
Да, на консолях нет читеров (в привычном понимании), там нельзя запустить тренер и нет приватных читов, но там есть USB порт, с помощью которого можно редактировать сейвы игры.
Как это происходит?
Вставляем флешку в консоль, копируем сейв нужной игры. Редактируем его на ПК в специально предназначенной для этого программе – ничего криминального, просто меняем, к примеру, значение урона. Вставляем флешку обратно в консоль, и скидываем сейв обратно. Готово.
Почему вспомнила эту давнюю историю?
Захожу в игру по приглашению. Напарник открывает портал. Все как обычно. На уровень сложности внимания не обратила. И тут вижу, что мы на портале 150 уровня (кто не в курсе, это портал максимальной сложности, и по статистике на ПК его проходят только четверки игроков с парагоном от 4000 и выше) и тут мой напарник несется вперед, снося всех на своем пути О_О
=> Запись прямой трансляции с места событий
Притом уровень его парагона был чуть выше 1000. Наверное, стоило выйти сразу, но пребывала в некой в растерянности. Тем более, что события, произошедшие на XBOX и описанные выше, произошли несколько лет назад, как-то все забылось.
Мой парагон рос как на дрожжах. В диабло существует практика «прицепиться вагоном» и прокачать персонажа до 70 уровня. Но сама пользовалась этим всего пару раз, когда не успевала выполнить задания очередного сезона. Мне нравится естественное развитие, персонаж получается более сбалансированным.
Прошли портал. Выходим в город. Напарник скидывает мне «подарки». Беру.
Вот тогда и вспомнила ту давнюю историю с «подарком» на XBOX.
Через несколько дней ко мне в игру зашел еще такой же «скилл», а потом еще один и еще…
Что ж, похоже, падение серверов Diablo 2: Resurrected имеет какое-то ритуалистическое значение, поскольку уже четвертый день подряд у ролевой игры Blizzard Entertainment возникают проблемы с сервером!
К счастью, на этот раз официальный Твиттер Blizzard Entertainment уже знает об этой проблеме, в отличие от вчерашнего, когда аккаунт несколько часов молчал. Вот последнее заявление студии:
Нам известно о текущих проблемах, связанных с D2R, и мы занимаемся их расследованиями. Спасибо за терпеливость.
Название игры Resurrected (Воскрешение) начинает приобретать истинное значение, поскольку Blizzard каждый день воскрешает умершие серверы игры.
Для Diablo 3 вышло обновление 2.7.1a
На живых серверах Diablo 3 было установлено обновление 2.7.1a, в котором разработчики ввели некоторые изменения, направленные на решение недавних проблем со стабильностью и производительностью игры. Стоит отметить, что никаких балансировочных правок в нем проведено не было.
Официальный пост Blizzard гласит:
Обновление 2.7.1a к 24 сезону теперь доступно. Это обновление включает в себя исправление, касающееся проблем со стабильностью/производительностью, и юридическое обновление, которое не затронет опыт игроков. На этот раз никаких изменений баланса или корректировок предметов введено не было.
How to get rid of botters
Oh wtf ever happened to the D3 PvP? I forgot all about it.
You killed the Rank 1 Wizard! Hopefully this gets coverage!
Knowing one day he will be back at rank 1 fills you with determination.
Doing gods blizzards work my friend.
On one hand, these are botters. They get what they deserve, especially since their games are. open to friends or what?
On the other hand. HOLY SHIT these guys are in the same guild and they are taking out their own trash WOW.
The real truth here
I used to kill baal bots with my sorc (meteor spam on waypoint).
Killing a botter will cause account suspension.
10 Grammatical Errors That Damage Credibility and How to Fix Them
Are your grammar goofs making you look bad? Frequent grammar errors could cause others to question your writing at work. Here’s how to identify and fix ten of the most common offenders.
Commonly Confused Words
There’s an inherent flaw to spellcheck—sometimes you spell a word correctly, but you use the wrong one. Even when your mistake is an honest typo, using the wrong word can make it look as though there’s a gap in your knowledge.
1 Then/Than
Then can mean at that time or next in time/space/order.
Than is comparative.
2 Lose/Loose
Lose is a verb that can mean fail to win, misplace, or free oneself from something or someone.
Loose is an adjective that means not tight.
LEARN MORE: Loose vs. Lose
3 Confusing homophones.
Homophones (words that sound the same but have different spellings and meanings) can catch us off guard, so be sure to double-check for them.
Their means belonging to them.
There indicates a place.
They’re is a contraction of “they are.”
To is a preposition that indicates direction.
To can also form infinitives.
Too means “also.” It’s also used as an intensifier.
Your means “belonging to you.”
You’re is a contraction of “you are.”
Punctuation Problems
Although you might not be judged for every misplaced comma, certain punctuation mistakes stand out. Some are pet peeves of grammar-savvy folks, and others can accidentally transform the meaning of your sentence.
4 Apostrophes in plural words
Apostrophes are used to show possession. (The dog’s collar was red.) They’re also used to form contractions like shouldn’t, we’ve, and you’re.
Apostrophes are almost never used to form plurals.
Here’s an exception: When you reference lowercase letters, eliminating the apostrophe would be confusing.
5 Runaway ellipses
The term “ellipsis” (plural: ellipses) comes from the Greek word meaning “omission.” When you quote someone, ellipses can indicate that you’ve omitted part of the quote. They can also show a pause or indicate a sentence that trails off without a conclusion. In general, ellipses should be used sparingly as a conscious style choice.
The ellipsis always consists of three dots. If the ellipsis comes immediately after a grammatically complete sentence, that sentence still needs its own period. You should space before and after an ellipsis, unless it’s at the end of a complete sentence. Never use a long series of dots to substitute for an ellipsis.
LEARN MORE: Ellipsis
6 Unnecessary quotation marks
I can admit when I need help. Thanks, @grammarly! How Marketing Influencer Cynthia Johnson Communicates with Confidence https://t.co/Qob4TVI6BV
So, just be aware that when you end an email by telling your boss to have a “great day,” you’re implying the opposite.
Popular Grammar Pet Peeves
Frequent writers have pet peeves, and we’ve already covered some of them (like confusing your/you’re and overusing ellipses) already. Here are a couple more that bother people more than most.
7 Irregardless
Yes, irregardless is a word—it means the same thing as regardless. But dictionaries consider it nonstandard, and people have strong feelings about it. Grammarly took a poll, and 74% of our readers did not consider it a word.
8 “I seen”
Some verb tenses can be tricky, even if you’re a native English speaker. And although we sometimes hear “I seen” in colloquial speech, it’s never proper grammar.
Saw is the past tense of the verb see. It usually comes immediately after nouns or pronouns.
Seen is the past participle of the verb see. It is generally used alongside have, has, had, was, or were in a sentence to make compound verbs.
Clarity Concerns
Good writing is clear and understandable. It never leaves the reader wondering what you mean. Here are a couple of the most common problems that affect clarity.
9 Unclear antecedent
An antecedent is a word or phrase that is replaced by another word later in the sentence. For example, after we mention a person’s name, we often replace the name with a pronoun later in the sentence.
In the sentence above, Sarah is the antecedent. The pronoun her is used later in the sentence in place of the name Sarah, but both her and Sarah refer to the same person.
When there is more than one noun at play in a sentence, an unclear antecedent makes it difficult to understand which one the pronoun refers to.
To whom does the pronoun his refer? Unless the surrounding sentences make it clear who you’re talking about, rewrite the sentence so we understand whether it’s Luke’s first day or Jack’s.
10 Misplaced modifier
A modifier changes, clarifies, qualifies, or limits a particular word in a sentence in order to add emphasis, explanation, or detail. Modifiers tend to be descriptive words, such as adjectives and adverbs. Modifiers can cause trouble when they’re placed too far from the modified noun. Sometimes the results are unintentionally hilarious.
Did you fluff the pillow, or did you distress an unsuspecting feline? Assuming the pillow is the thing getting fluffed (thank goodness!), let’s treat it as the subject of the sentence instead of the cat.
That’s better, and no one need alert the ASPCA! 
Theoretical grammar of the english language
Описание презентации по отдельным слайдам:
Описание слайда:
Theoretical grammar of the English language
Описание слайда:
The system of language study
Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse.
Language incorporates the three constituent parts: the phonological system, the lexical system, the grammatical system:
the phonological system is the subfoundation of language which determines the material (phonetical) appearance of its significative units.
the lexical system is the whole set of naming means of language, that is, words and stable word-groups.
the grammatical system is the whole set of regularities determining the combination of naming means in the formation of utterances as the embodiment of thinking process.
Any linguistic description may have a practical (providing a person with a manual of practical mastery of the corresponding part of language) or theoretical (present the studied parts of language in relative isolation, so as to gain insights into their inner structure and expose the intrinsic mechanisms of their functioning ) purpose.
Описание слайда:
Subject matter of theoretical grammar of the English language
Grammar is a branch of linguistics which studies principles of word formation, of phrase and sentence construction.
In earlier periods of the development of linguistic knowledge, grammatical scholars believed that the only purpose of grammar was to give strict rules of writing and speaking correctly. The result of this «prescriptive» approach was that alongside quite essential and useful information, non-existent «rules» were formulated that stood in sheer contradiction with the existing language usage, i.e. lingual reality; structural and descriptive scholars
In modern trends grammar is considered as a system of interrelated elements which can be segmental and suprasegmental. Theoretical grammar is aimed at analysis of the language system in order to describe different phenomena of the language and explain their uniqueness: semantic and functional scholar.
grammar
Morphology
studies forms of words and principles
of their changing
Syntax
studies principles of phrase and
sentence construction
Описание слайда:
Language as a system
Units of all the higher levels of language are meaningful;
they are so called «signemes» as
opposed to «cortemes», i.e. non-meaningful
units of different status, such
as phonemes (and letters as
phoneme representatives),
syllables, and some others.
phonemic level
formed by phonemes. The phoneme
has no meaning, its function is purely differential
morphemic level
formed by morphemes which are the elementary
meaningful parts of the word
lexemic level
formed by words (lexemes), which as different from the
morpheme are directly naming (nominative) unit of language
phrasemic level
formed by combinations of two or more notional words
which perform a nominative function representing the referent of
nomination as a complicated phenomenon
proposemic level
formed by the sentence which, naming a certain situation,
or situational event, expresses predication, i.e. shows
the relation of the denoted event to reality.
dictemic level
formed by the dicteme being defined as an elementary
topical segmental unit of the continual text
Описание слайда:
Grammatical form and grammatical category
Notional words possess some morphemic features expressing grammatical (morphological) meanings, which determine the grammatical form of the word. The grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites the whole class of words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics. Thus, the grammatical form presents a division of the words on the principle of expressing a certain grammatical meaning.
Описание слайда:
Grammatical category
Professor Smirnitsky’s Postulates of the Grammatical Category.
I. Any grammatical category must be represented by, at least, 2 grammatical forms.
E.g. Category of number in English is represented by the opposition of 2 forms
II. No grammatical category can be represented by all the word forms of the word, as all the word forms of the given word make up a lexico-grammatical category.
III. One word form may combine different grammatical categories.
IV. No word form can combine 2 categorial meanings (grammatical meaning of the same category) of one and the same category.
Eg. It is impossible to find singular and plural in one word form simultaneously.
V. Every word form must represent at least one categorial form or belong to some
grammatical category. There are no notional word forms without grammatical categories.
Описание слайда:
Grammatical category
The ordered set of grammatical forms expressing a categorial function constitutes a paradigm. The paradigmatic correlations of grammatical forms in a category are exposed by the so-called “grammatical oppositions”.
The opposition may be defined as a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and differential features.
By number of members contrasted, oppositions are divided into binary (two members) and more than binary (ternary, quaternary, etc.).
privative opposition
is formed by a contrastive pair of members
in which one member is characterized by
the presence of a certain differential feature
(«mark»), while the other member is
characterized by the absence of this feature.
E.G.: girl – girls, work – is working
Описание слайда:
Grammatical form
The grammatical form may be made up in two ways
Описание слайда:
Morphemic structure of a word
morpheme is the elementary meaningful part of the word. There are the following distributional morpheme types which classification is arranged in the form of oppositional pairs of immediate correlation.
on the basis of the
degree of self-dependence
on the basis of
formal presentation
on the basis of
segmental relation
on the basis of
grammatical alternation
on the basis of
linear characteristic
on the basis of
meaningfulness
Описание слайда:
Parts of speech theory
The words of language depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into grammatically relevant sets or classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words, are called «parts of speech”
In early scholars mono-differential approach was used to distinguish parts of speech when one of the following three criteria was applied:
«semantic», «formal», and «functional».
presupposes the evaluation of
the generalized meaning which
is characteristic of all the subsets
of words constituting a given
part of speech
provides the exposition of the
specific flexional and
derivational
(word-building) features
concerns the syntactic role of
words in the sentence typical of
a part of speech
Описание слайда:
Historical review of parts of speech theories
formal approach
They distinguished between two classes of words:
Описание слайда:
Historical review of parts of speech theories
syntactic (functional) approach
The classification of words is based on the study of their combinability by means of substitution testing, which results in developing the standard model of four main “positions” of notional words in the English sentence: noun (N), verb (V), adjective (A), adverb (D)
Example:
Frame A. The concert was good (always).
Frame B. The clerk remembered the tax (suddenly).
Frame C. The team went there.
As a result of those tests the following lists of words were established:
Class 1. (A) concert, coffee, taste, container, difference, etc. (B) clerk, husband, supervisor, etc.; tax, food, coffee, etc. (C) team, husband, woman, etc.
Class 2. (A) was, seemed, became, etc. (B) remembered, wanted, saw, suggested etc. (C) went, came, ran, lived, worked, etc.
Class 3. (A) good, large, necessary, foreign, new empty, etc.
Class 4. (A) there, here, always, then, sometimes, etc. (B) clearly, sufficiently, especially, repeatedly, soon, etc. (C) there, back, out, etc.; rapidly, eagerly, confidently, etc.
Charles Fries
Описание слайда:
Historical review of parts of speech theories
The triple principle was taken into account: formal, semantic and functional
(1) noun, (2) adjective, (3) pronoun, (4) verb, (5) particles
Otto Jespersen
(1958 г )
The key principle of the classification is formal
Parts of speech
G. Suit (1898 г)
The triple principle was taken into account: formal, semantic and functional
They suggest the classification which describes 8 classes of words: names (noun, adjective), pronoun, verb, participle, adverb, preposition, conjunction, interjections.
Later article was added by B.Jonson
English grammar scholars: W.Bullokar, Ch.Butler, B.Jonson
Declinable:
noun words –
noun, numeral, pronoun
2. adjective words –
adjective, adjectival numeral,
participle
Indeclinable:
1. interjection,
2. adverb,
3. preposition
4. conjunction.
Описание слайда:
Historical review of parts of speech theories
Words are divided into two major groups: notional (noun, adjective, pronoun, verb, adverb, numeral, interjection, modal words, statives) and functional (preposition, particle, article, conjunction).
According to the grammatical meaning words are divided into tree groups:
parts of speech which name smth (nouns, verbs, statives, adverbs),
parts of speech which demonstrate the object and its quantity (pronouns and numerals),
parts of speech which manifest the attitude of a speaker towards the utterance (interjections and modal words)
Russian scholars
He was the first who gave the definition to parts of speech: “части речи – это лексико-грамматические разряды слов, различающиеся по своим грамматическим значениям, по типам формообразования, по типам и формам словообразования и по функциям в предложении”
Russian scientist Leo Scherba
Описание слайда:
Functional parts of speech
the article
expresses the specific limitation of the
substantive functions
the preposition
expresses the dependencies and
interdependencies of substantive referents
the conjunction
expresses connections of phenomena
the particle
unites the functional words of specifying
and limiting meaning.
the modal word
expresses the attitude of the speaker to
the reflected situation and its parts.
Here belong the functional words of probability
(probably, perhaps, etc.), of qualitative
evaluation (fortunately, unfortunately, luckily,
etc.), and also of affirmation and negation
the interjection
is a signal of emotions
Описание слайда:
English noun can be declined within two categories: category of number and category of determinacy.
Описание слайда:
Category of number of English nouns
The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to its singular form. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural, its productive formal mark being the suffix –(e)s.
Non-productive ways of expressing the number opposition are
vowel interchange (man – men, woman – women, tooth – teeth),
the archaic suffix –(e)n (ox – oxen, child – children, cow – kine, brother – brethren),
the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns (formula – formulae, phenomenon – phenomena, alumnus – alumni etc).
In some cases the plural form is homonymous with the singular form (sheep, deer, fish ).
The most general quantitative characteristics of individual words constitute the lexico-grammatical base for dividing the nounal vocabulary as a whole into countable nouns and uncountable nouns, which are treated grammatically as either singular or plural.
The two subclasses of uncountable nouns are usually referred to, respectively, as sungularia tantum / pluralia tantum.
The absolute singular is characteristic
of the names of:
abstract notions (peace, love, joy …)
branches of professional activity
(chemistry, architecture, linguistics…)
mass materials (water, snow, steel…)
collective inanimate objects
(foliage, fruit, furniture…)
The absolute plural is characteristic of the uncountable nouns:
which denote objects consisting of two halves (trousers, scossors,spectacles…)
expressing some sort of collective meaning,
i.e. rendering the idea of indefinite plurality, both concrete and abstract
(supplies, outskirts, clothes; tidings, earnings, contents, politics; police, cattle, poultry …)
denoting some diseases as well as some abnormal states of the body
and mind (measles, rickets, creeps, hysterics…)
The absolute plural, by way of oppositional reduction, can be represented in
countable nouns having the form of the singular (this form of the absolute plural may
be called multitude plural), in uncountable nouns having the form of the plural
(descriptive uncountable plural), and also in countable nouns having the form of
the singular (repetition plural).
Описание слайда:
Category of gender of English nouns
The gender subcategorization of English nouns is purely lexical or «semantic“ but not grammatical. The gender division of nouns in English is expressed not as variable forms of words, but as nounal classification.
According to some theories, the category of gender is expressed in English by the obligatory correlation of nouns with the personal pronouns of the third person. As a result of the double oppositional correlation, a specific system of three genders arises, which is, somewhat misleadingly represented by the traditional terminology: the neuter gender, the masculine gender, the feminine gender.
Описание слайда:
Category of case of English nouns
Case is the immanent morphological category of the noun manifested in the forms of noun declension and showing the relations of the nounal referent to other objects and phenomena.
There are different points of view about the essence of the category of case
Описание слайда:
Category of determination of English nouns
Article is a determining unit of specific nature accompanying the noun in communicative collocation.
The definite article expresses the identification or individualsation of the noun: the use of this article shows that the object denoted is taken in its concrete, individual quality. The meaningful absence of the article before the countable noun in the singular signifies that the noun is taken in an abstract sense, expressing the most general idea of the object denoted. This meaning, which may be called the meaning of «absolute generalization».
Thus, the status of the combination of the article with the noun should be determined as basically analytical, the article construction as such being localized by its segmental properties between the free syntactic combination of words (the upper bordering level) and the combination of a grammatical affix with a notional stem in the morphological composition of an indivisible word (the lower bordering level). The article itself is a special type of grammatical auxiliary.
Описание слайда:
Verb in the system of the English language
The general categorial meaning of the verb is process presented dynamically, i.e. developing in time. This general processual meaning is embedded in the semantics of all the verbs, including those that denote states, forms of existence, types of attitude, evaluations, etc., rather than actions.
The processual categorial meaning of the notional verb determines its characteristic combination with a noun expressing both the doer of the action (its subject) and, in cases of the objective verb, the recipient of the action (its object); it also determines its combination with an adverb as the modifier of the action.
In the sentence the finite verb invariably performs the function of the verb-predicate, expressing the processual categorial features of predication, i.e. time, aspect, voice, and mood. The non-finite verb performs different functions according to its intermediary nature (those of the syntactic subject, object, adverbial modifier, attribute), but its non-processual functions are always actualized in close combination with its processual semantic features.
Описание слайда:
Verb in the system of the English language
The combining power of verbs in relation to other words in syntactically subordinate positions is called their syntactic «valency“ which falls into two cardinal types: obligatory ( itmust necessarily be realized for the sake of the grammatical completion of the syntactic construction (e.g.: to see, to notice etc.)) and optional (it is not necessarily realized in grammatically complete constructions as it is realized depending on the concrete information to be conveyed by the utterance (e.g.: verb + adverb, to write…/to write smth to smb).
verbs
finite
semi-notional
These «predicators» include auxiliary verbs, modal verbs,
semi-notional verbid introducer verbs, and link-verbs.
verbids
actional
The verbs express the action performed by the subject
statal
These verbs denote the state of their subject
Описание слайда:
Verb in the system of the English language
verbs
transitive,
or сomplementive
Intransitive,
or uncomplementive
The personal verbs normally refer to the
real subject of the denoted process (which
subject may be either an actual human being,
or a non-human being, or else an inanimate
substance or an abstract notion). Here are
some of them: work, start, pause, hesitate, act,
function, materialize, laugh, cough, etc.
The impersonal verbs mostly express natural
phenomena of the self-processual type, i.e. natural
processes going on without a reference
to a real subject.
Cf.: rain, snow, freeze, drizzle, thaw, etc.
The predicative verbs are mainly link-verbs,
which can be divided into the pure link be;
the specifying links become, grow, seem,
appear, look, taste, etc.;
and the notional links.
The objective complementive verbs are divided into
several important subclasses: mono-complementive
verbs (taking one object-complement: e.g. take,
grasp, forget, enjoy, like, look at, point to) and
bicomplementive verbs (taking two complements:
e.g. a) give, bring, pay, hand, show, introduce, mention).
Adverbial complementive verbs include two main subclasses: the first is formed
by verbs taking an adverbial complement of place or of time (e.g. be, live, stay,
go, ride, arrive) and the second is formed by verbs taking an adverbial
complement of manner (e.g. act, do, keep, behave, get on).
Описание слайда:
VERB: PERSON
The expression of the category of person is essentially confined to the singular form of the verb in the present tense of the indicative mood and, besides, is very singularly presented in the future tense. As for the past tense, the person is alien to it, except for a trace of personal distinction in the archaic conjugation.
In the present tense the expression of the category of person is divided into three peculiar subsystems.
the first subsystem includes the modal verbs that have no personal inflexions: can, may, must, shall, will, ought, need, dare.
the second subsystem is made up by the unique verbal lexeme be.
Описание слайда:
VERB: PERSON
The category of person taken as a whole is inherently linguistic, the significative purpose of it being confined to indications centering around the production of speech.
The semantic content of the first person is the indication of the person who is speaking. This self-indicative role is performed lexically by the personal pronoun.
The semantic content of the second person is the indication of the individual who is listening to the first person speaking. This listener-indicative function is performed by the personal pronoun you.
The semantic content of the third person is quite different from that of either the first or second person: the third person indicates all the other entities of reality. This kind of indication may be effected in the two alternative ways.
The direct way –
by using words of a full-meaning function, either proper,
or common, with the corresponding specifications achieved
with the help of indicators-determiners (articles
and pronominal words of diverse linguistic standings)
The oblique way –
by using the personal pronouns he, she,
or it, depending on the gender properties
of the referents.
Описание слайда:
VERB: NUMBER
The more or less distinct morphemic featuring of the category of number can be seen only with the archaic forms of the unique be, both in the present tense and in the past tense.
As for the rest of the verbs, the blending of the morphemic expression of the two categories (number and person) is complete, for the only explicit morphemic opposition in the integral categorial sphere of person and number is reduced with these verbs to the third person singular (present tense, indicative mood).
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VERB: tense
The expression or non-expression of grammatical time, together with the expression or non-expression of grammatical mood in person-form presentation, constitutes the basis of the verbal category of finitude, i.e. the basis of the division of all the forms of the verb into finite and non-finite.
time
The philosophical notion of time
exposes it as the universal form of
the continual consecutive change
of phenomena
All the lexical expressions of time, according
as they refer or do not refer to the denoted
points or periods of time, directly or obliquely,
to this moment, are divided into «present-oriented»,
or «absolutive» expressions of time, and
«non-present-oriented», «non-absolutive» expressions of time.
Of all the temporal meanings conveyed by lexical denotation of time,
the finite verb generalizes in its categorial forms, taking them as
dynamic characteristics of the reflected process: it is the verbal
expression of abstract, grammatical time that forms the necessary background
for the adverbial contextual time denotation in an utterance
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VERB: tense
In Contemporary English, the grammatical expression of verbal time, i.e. tense, is effected in two correlated stages. At the first stage, the process receives an absolutive time characteristic by means of opposing the past tense to the present tense. At the second stage, the process receives a non-absolutive relative time characteristic by means of opposing the forms of the future tense to the forms of no future marking.
it stands to reason to recognize in the system of the English verb not one, but two temporal categories.
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the category of «primary time»
The specific feature of the category of primary time is that it divides all the tense forms of the English verb into two temporal planes: the plane of the present and the plane of the past, which affects also the future forms.
The category of primary time is the only verbal category of immanent order which is expressed by inflexional forms.
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the category of «prospective time»
The category is formed by the opposition of present tense and future tense forms. But the combinations of the verbs shall and will with the infinitive have recently become the controversial point in grammar theory of the contemporary English as
these combinations really constitute partially together with the forms of the past and present, the categorial expression of verbal tense (E.G. It will snow),
at the same time these combinations are considered to be just modal phrases, whose expression of the future time does not differ in essence from the general future orientation of other combinations of modal verbs with the infinitive (E.G. I will do, he shall go there). Thus the verbs shall, will are regarded as part of the general set of modal verbs, «modal auxiliaries», expressing the meanings of capability, probability, permission, obligation, and the like
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VERB: ASPECT
The aspective meaning of the verb, as different from its temporal meaning, reflects the inherent mode of the realization of the process irrespective of its timing.
The system of verbal aspective forms is analyzed under the heading of the «temporal inflexion», i.e. synthetic inflexion proper and analytical combinations as its equivalent, being evaluated in the following light: the common (simple) forms, the continuous forms and the perfect forms.
the continuous forms are aspective because they do not, and cannot, denote the timing of the process but disclose the nature of development of the verbal action.
the perfect, as different from the continuous, does reflect a kind of timing, expressing not only time in relative retrospect, but also the very connection of a prior process with a time-limit reflected in a subsequent event.
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VERB: ASPECT
The aspective category of development is constituted by the opposition of the continuous forms of the verb to the non-continuous, or indefinite forms of the verb.
The marked member of the opposition is the continuous, which is built up by the auxiliary be plus the present participle of the conjugated verb.
The categorial meaning of the continuous is «action in progress»; the unmarked member of the opposition, the indefinite, leaves this meaning unspecified, i.e. expresses the non-continuous.
The category of retrospective coordination (retrospect) is constituted by the opposition of the perfect forms of the verb to the non-perfect, or indefinite forms.
The marked member of the opposition is the perfect, which is built up by the auxiliary have in combination with the past participle of the conjugated verb.
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The category of retrospective coordination
The functional meaning of the category has been interpreted in four different ways,
The first comprehensively represented grammatical exposition of the perfect verbal form was the «tense view»: by this view the perfect is approached as a peculiar tense form: it shows that the perfect, in fact, coexists with the other, primary expression of time.
The second grammatical interpretation of the perfect was the «aspect view»: according to this interpretation the perfect is approached as an aspective form of the verb: the resultative meaning ascribed to the perfect as its determining grammatical function is understood as a particular manifestation of its transmissive functional semantics.
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The category of retrospective coordination
The third grammatical interpretation of the perfect was the «tense-aspect blend view»: the perfect is recognized as a form of double temporal-aspective character, as the two verbal forms expressing temporal and aspective functions in a blend are contrasted against the indefinite form as their common counterpart of neutralized aspective properties.
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VERB: VOICE
The verbal category of voice shows the direction of the process as regards the participants of the situation reflected in the syntactic construction: the category does not illustrate the properties of an action itself. The voice of the English verb is expressed by the opposition of the passive form of the verb to the active form of the verb.
The passive form is alien to many verbs of the statal subclass (displaying a weak dynamic force), such as have (direct possessive meaning), belong, cost, resemble, fail, misgive, etc. Thus, in accord with their relation to the passive voice, all the verbs can be divided into two large sets: the set of passivized verbs and the set of non-passivized verbs.
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VERB: VOICE
Voice is interpreted rather as a full-representative category, the same as person, number, tense, and aspect, because the demarcation line between the passivized and non-passivized sets is by no means rigid, as the verbs of the non-passivized order may migrate into the passivized order in various contextual conditions (cf. The bed has not been slept in; The house seems not to have been lived in for a long time).
Thus, the category of voice should be interpreted as being reflected in the whole system of verbs, the non-passivized verbs presenting the active voice form if not directly, then indirectly.
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VERB: VOICE
Consider the following examples:
I will shave and wash, and be ready for breakfast in half an hour.
I’m afraid Mary hasn’t dressed up yet.
Now I see your son is thoroughly preparing for the entrance examinations.
The actions expressed by the verbs are not passed from the subject to any outer object; on the contrary, these actions are confined to no other participant of the situation than the subject, the latter constituting its own object of the action performance. This kind of verbal meaning of the action performed by the subject upon itself is classed as «reflexive». The same meaning can be rendered explicit by combining the verb with the reflexive «self»-pronoun.
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VERB: VOICE
Consider the following examples:
The friends will be meeting tomorrow.
Unfortunately, Nellie and Christopher divorced two years after their magnificent marriage.
Are Phil and Glen quarrelling again over their toy cruiser?
The actions expressed by the verbs are also confined to the subject but these actions are performed by the subject constituents reciprocally. This verbal meaning of the action performed by the subjects in the subject group on one another is called «reciprocal».
As is the case with the reflexive meaning, the reciprocal meaning can be rendered explicit by combining the verbs with special pronouns, namely, the reciprocal pronouns: the friends will be meeting one another; Nellie and Christopher divorced each other; the children are quarrelling with each other.
The verbs in reflexive and reciprocal uses in combination with the reflexive and reciprocal pronouns may be called, respectively, «reflexivized» and «reciprocalized». Used absolutively, they are just reflexive and reciprocal variants of their lexemes.
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VERB: VOICE
Consider the following examples:
The new paper-backs are selling excellently.
The suggested procedure will hardly apply to all the instances.
Large native cigarettes smoked easily and coolly.
Perhaps the loin chop will eat better than it looks.
The actions expressed by the otherwise transitive verbs are confined to the subject, though not in a way of active self-transitive subject performance, but as if going on of their own accord. The presentation of the verbal action of this type comes under the heading of the «middle» voice. The peculiarity of this voice is in the voice neutralization when the weak member of opposition does not fully coincide in function with the strong member, but rather is located somewhere in between the two functional borders.
But all enumerated cases of voice alternations are only semantic variants of the grammatical active voice.
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VERB: MOOD
The category of mood expresses the character of connection between the process denoted by the verb and the actual reality, either presenting the process as a fact that really happened, happens or will happen, or treating it as an imaginary phenomenon, i.e. the subject of a hypothesis, speculation, desire.
The functional opposition underlying the category as a whole is constituted by the forms of oblique mood meaning, i.e. those of unreality, contrasted against the forms of direct mood meaning, i.e. those of reality.
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VERB: MOOD
Various classifications of moods
Formal approach
There are no oblique Moods as should/would + Infinitive is not an analytical form because the second element can function independently. As for the forms of the Past Indefinite and the Past Perfect used to express unreality, these forms are of the indicative Mood used in specific syntactical environment.
Barkhudarov
Semantic approach
There are 16 moods different in the meaning
Deutschbein
The formal- semantic approach
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VERB: MOOD
Formal and semantic approach
The category of Mood is based on a 2-member opposition: the Indicative Mood is opposed to the Subjunctive. The Subjunctive Mood is described as an integral mood of unreality but it comprises 2 subsystems (or 2 sets of forms):
The 1st comprises the forms of the present plane of the verb. That set of forms is called The Spective mood or the Mood of Attitudes. It falls into the Pure Spective (Ex.: So be it. Happen what may. ) and the Modal Spective (such forms as may/might or should + Infinitive)
The 2stset of forms comprises the forms of the past plane of the verb and it is called the Conditional Mood or the mood of Appraising Casual-Conditional Relations of Process, which falls into
1) The Stipulative Conditional which is described as past unposterior
Ex.: Oh, if he were here! + should/would structures
2) The Consecutive Conditional is regarded as past posterior and can be found in the principal clause of a complex sentence expressing a situation of unreal condition where the principal clause expresses the idea of its imagining consequence.
Ex.: If the peace-loving forces had not been on the alert, the civil war in that area would have resumed anew.
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Sentence in the system of the English language
The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern and distinguished by a contextually relevant communicative purpose.
The sentence, linguistically, is a predicative utterance-unit: the sentence not only names some referents with the help of its word-constituents, but also,
first, presents these referents as making up a certain situation, or a situational event, and
second, reflects the connection between the nominal denotation of the event and objective reality, showing the time of the event, its being real or unreal, desirable or undesirable, necessary or unnecessary, etc.
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Sentence in the system of the English language
The sentence is the immediate integral unit of speech built up of words according to a definite syntactic pattern any sentence is a structure which conveys a special meaning implicitly (подтекст) and explicitly (general meaning of all the word constituents).
Any sentence is built up on the basis of a certain model: inner (глубинная) and outer (внешняя) schemes.
The ideal sentence structure which
depends on obligatory valency of
a verb-predicate:
N1VN2 (I read a book), N1VD (I run fast),
N1V1V2N2 (I like to eat ice-cream)
This structure is the speech implementation
of the ideal model concerning the conditions of
communication: I like to eat ice-cream > I like Ice-cream
Features of a sentence as a unit of speech,
Any sentence is intonationally delimited.
Any sentence is characterized by its specific category of predication, which establishes the relation of the named phenomena to actual life.
Functions of a sentence as a unit of speech,
communicative (a sentence informs about a situation due to the predication feature).
nominative (a sentence denotes an event or a situation, i.e. expresses propositional nomination).
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Actual division of a sentence
The division of the sentence into notional parts can be called the «nominative division» (its alternative names are the «grammatical division» and the «syntactic division»).
The actual division of the sentence (the «functional sentence perspective“), is to reveal the correlative significance of the sentence parts from the point of view of their actual informative role in an utterance, i.e. from the point of view of the immediate semantic contribution they make to the total information conveyed by the sentence in the context of connected speech.
The main components of the actual division of the sentence are the theme and the rheme. Between the theme and the rheme are positioned intermediary, transitional parts of the actual division of various degrees of informative value (these parts are sometimes called «transition»).
The rheme expresses the basic informative part
of the communication, its contextually relevant
centre.
The theme expresses the starting point
of the communication, i.e. it denotes an
object or a phenomenon about which
something is reported.
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Actual division of a sentence
The actual division of the sentence finds its full expression only in a concrete context of speech, therefore it is sometimes referred to as the «contextual» division of the sentence.
actual division of a sentence
DIRECT
the theme is expressed by the subject,
and the rheme, by the predicate.
E.G. Mary is fond of poetry
INVERTED
the subject is the exposer of the rheme,
while the predicate, accordingly, is
the exposer of the theme.
E.G. «Isn’t it surprising that Tim is so fond of poetry?»-
«But you are wrong. Mary is fond of poetry, not Tim.»
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Thus, the actual division of a sentence makes up part of syntactic predication, because it strictly meets the functional purpose of predication as such, which is to relate the nominative content of the sentence to reality
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COMPOSITE SENTENCE
The composite sentence is formed by two or more predicative lines reflecting 2 or more situational events, and each predicative center makes up a clause of its own.
Main features of the composite sentence:
a composite sentence is a polypredicative unit,
it is characterized by a communicative wholeness => has 1 communicative intention,
it is characterized by intonational wholeness, all parts are interconnected,
a composite sentence is a characteristic of literary written style, rarely used in oral speech.
a composite sentence
compound sentences
complex sentences
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COMPOSITE SENTENCE
Types of connection
The means of combining clauses
Coordination
is a type of syntactic relations which implies
grammatical equality of words or clauses
joined together
Subordination
implies inequality in the grammatical
status of words or clauses used together:
one of them is the head (principal)
while the other is subordinated
(adjunct) to the head.
Syndetic
implies the use of conjunctions,
relative pronouns (who, which),
relative adverbs (where, how, when, why),
phrases (as long as, in order that)
while connecting clauses of a
composite sentence
Asyndetic
implies the connection of clauses
without help of any connective words
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Complex sentences
The complex sentence is a polypredicative construction built up on the principle of subordination.
It is derived from two or more base sentences one of which performs the role of a matrix (the principal clause) in relation to the others, the insert sentences (its subordinate clauses).
The subordinate clause is joined to the principal clause either by a subordinating connector (subordinator), or, with some types of clauses, asyndetically.
The principal clause dominates as a rule the subordinate clause positionally.
E.G. The boy was friendly with me because I allowed him to keep the fishing line ≠ As I allowed the boy to keep the fishing line, he was friendly with me.
The information status of the principal clause is often reduced to a sheer introducer of the subordinate clause, the latter expressing practically all the essential information envisaged by the communicative purpose of the whole of the sentence. The principal clause-introducer in sentences like these performs also the function of keeping up the conversation, i.e.»phatic» function.
E.G.: You see that mine is by far the most miserable lot. Just fancy that James has proposed to Mary! You know, kind sir, that I am bound to fasting and abstinence.
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Classification of subordinate clauses
Functional approach states that subordinate clauses are to be classed on the analogy of the positional parts of the simple sentence:
clauses of primary nominal positions to which belong subject (E.G.Why he rejected the offer has never been accounted for. ), predicative (E.G. The trouble is that I don’t know Fanny personally ) and object (E.G. They will accept with grace whatever he may offer ) clauses;
clauses of secondary nominal positions to which belong attributive clauses (E.G. At last we found a place where we could make a fire );
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COMPOUND SENTENCE
The compound sentence is a composite sentence built on the principle of coordination, which can be expressed either syndetically (by means of coordinative connectors) or asyndetically. The first clause is «leading» (the «leader» clause), the successive clauses are «sequential».
The main semantic relations between the clauses connected coordinatively are copulative, adversative, disjunctive, causal, consequential, resultative.
Copulative and enumerative types of connection form «open» coordinations.
E.G. They visited house after house. They went over them thoroughly, examining them from the cellars in the basement to the attics under the roof. Sometimes they were too large and sometimes they were too small; sometimes they were too far from the center of things and sometimes they were too close; sometimes they were too expensive and sometimes they wanted too many repairs; sometimes they were too stuffy and sometimes they were too airy; sometimes they were too dark and sometimes they were too bleak. Roger always found a fault that made the house unsuitable (S. Maugham).
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Text
oral written
mini text (announcement, order) continual texts
monologue dialogue
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Text in the language system
Text characteristics:
semantic completeness (a text must be logical, complete in its meaning in order to fulfill its pragmatic function)
intentionally presupposed
coherent (text constituents must be semantically connected)
marked with cohesion (text constituents must be grammatically connected), which is achieved through
syntactical parallel constructions
sinsemantic elements (words-substitutors)
actual elements coordination
suprasegmental elements (pausation, intonation contours, sentence stress)
semiotic coordination (lines order in a dialogue)
extralinguistic means (gestures, mimics, quotation)
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Text in the language system
Text in the course of speech is called discourse, «речь, погружённая в жизнь» (Н.Д. Арутюнова)
A communication is a discoursive human activity which implies the collaborators being studying the reality, its analysis in their mind, its representation in their speech and exchange of own notions in the course of interaction when text is the result of thinking being oral or written.
Text is stative compared to discourse which is dynamic being a complex psycho physiological and linguistic phenomenon.
Discourse reflects thoughts which are subordinated in a text in order to be understood by an addressee.
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